Preface: After we
about the nature of the Haiduckentums 15.-19.Jh. inquires, we are now historically the 20th Century and will deal with the socialist era. For this purpose, we will us the work of Katherine Verdery, "Transylvanian Villagers. Three centuries of political, economic and ethnic change run "closer to heart. The book we could also use if we had here a history department, deal with the Romanian history in an exemplary village in Transylvania. My concern, however, in this seminar was to illuminate the social and inter-ethnic area in more detail.
Transylvanian Villagers:
Introduction:
The book was published in 1983, is divided into four parts: 1 Transylvanian villagers in the socialist period, 2 Transylvanian villagers as part of the Habsburg political economy, 3 The climax of nationalism and Transylvania under Hungarian rule, 4. Transylvanian peasants in pre-Communist Romania. As is evident from the title, it is the book about the political, economic and social changes over three centuries in the life of Transylvanian peasants, that a particular community, but this view is found in a much wider overall context of the transformations in Eastern Europe taken into account. It is a book for Americans who have no prior knowledge, so that it accurately describes all the relationships and gives an overall picture. The book is, therefore, for students who wish to familiarize themselves with the history, and is very good. Unfortunately, there are no German translation.
The first part is the Life circumstances of some Transylvanian villagers in the 70/80er years, with an emphasis on the economic and political organization and inter-ethnic relations. It's not just about the specific village, but there are also general, made for the whole of Romania valid statements.
In the second part of the separate areas of economics and politics from each other and the first measures of centralization of the Habsburg Empire and then the feudal economic system of the Hungarians in Transylvania between the early 17th century and 1848 considered. In the third part of the reader's attention on the politics and economics at village and provincial level over the period 1848-1918 is drawn. The fourth part deals a complex with the period from 1918 until the Second World War, which in turn includes the changes on the political and economic level in the village and in the country; important Verdery to show in this period, such as historical processes in the anteroom to the social and economic organization in the interwar years contributed. A second complex in the fourth part deals with the changes after 1945, it summarizes and relates them to the ethnic identity of the entire period under review.
The book is based on fieldwork in the village Bintinti (later Aurel Vlaicu), said Verdery lived with a family. stand with help and advice you Mihai Pop, a famous Romanian ethnographer and folklorist (Bucharest), to the side.
Chapter 1: "pounds of sugar" (p. 29-48)
"We will meet the five-year plan in four and a half years, be it what it would cost, even when we need it for ten years."
"They pretend to pay us, we pretend we work."
example of the village Binţinţi today Aurel Vlaicu
Aurel Vlaicu, in Hunedoara County, Transylvania at the time Ceausescu's one of the three major areas of Romania: Transylvania
In southwestern Transylvania at the Mures / Mures River, south of the Apuseni Mountains (Western Carpathians), few Mileage Located north of Broos / Orastie.
Geoagiu part of the community (11 villages)
about 900 inhabitants, known for:
- birthplace of aviation pioneer Aurel Vlaicu
- The worst badly shattered state cooperative.
- Village where Romanians and German together
- Exceptional modern
- arrangement of houses along a main road, branching off at regular intervals roads
- arranged farms linear
- most imposing buildings: former Graf residence, now CAP center directing
- hospitable, open and talkative regarding a variety of topics
opinions of the villagers:
the Hungary we were slaves, but the Romanians were the first in Transylvania, they can be persuaded never something else.
We have a collective farm, but it does not work well - they do not pay enough. You get people from elsewhere in here and pay them better and if we complain that we should get more, we are told: this is not allowed. Who wants to work as long as you have on the farm in the factory gets a decent wage instead of the occasional load of corn and the miserable pension. And steal they do, why is there not a single non-infected his hand in the till? The
Collectivization, that's another story. It was terrible when they took away our soil, and it is a scandal, as this farm work. But even so, there has never been better than now. And many will say the same, even if there are some who are still dissatisfied, namely those who expect that everything happens by itself. Before, we were poor farmers and we had to work hard all summer, and then it rained and our entire crop was suddenly gone. It took us a whole day to go to the market a chicken and some eggs for a little cash selling now our participation in the bus, driving to the factory and got our reward. Was it used to be a good life? No, it was not. Now if we want it, we get a good job, and if we want we can send our children to college, and it costs hardly what. Even the collective farm would work better if people would not idle from morning to night.
And they believe me, once we could not like today, buy kilos of sugar, but only as a lump. Today everyone is noble. Everyone has a fur coat, you see no more poor people. Before, I was a poor tenant farmer and now my son is an engineer.
In our village it is German, not only Romanians and they are already so many years since they almost to the locals count. We can not always tolerate u8ns but now everything is good between us, we're all the same, among them there are good and bad people just like us. And they are very industrious, and their children are all teachers and engineers. The people who pull down unds really all these newcomers are, they are out of their hills, with their hordes of children come to us for us to destroy our beautiful village. And now that the government prohibits abortion, they reproduce more and more.
This thing with abortion is already terrible, really, since we are no contraceptives. It causes many young couples are not a bunch raise children want, or make the careless girl foolishness. If the government would not pay child benefit, the situation would be much worse.
- after the end of the 2nd WK:
remains peasant life unchanged for
First Amendment: be German to Russia deported, expropriated
- Land reform in 1945, Romanians get the floors of the Deutsche
- Chiaburi, rural exploiters, richer farmers who before the war at the expense of the other farmers have enriched, are now fighting
- In Binţinţi: 15 chiaburi
households enjoy a high reputation in the village to be taken by the villagers in protection.
- are at the mercy the new rule suspended; charges must do more
- Cota / Quote initially only chiaburen, then make all farmers had
- Charges of cereals (maize and wheat), milk, vegetables and meat, calculated according to the expected return of the land, ie larger areas - more expected return - more taxes.
- Up in the 50s
- counter-strategy of the farmers: - nominally the country to distribute to multiple owners - smaller
rates - the rate collectors indicate less than the actual amount of revenue
- went for all crops with Exception of the wheat harvest when the level of crop yield was determined at the threshing.
- the main target of the farmers during this period: as much as possible keep to agricultural products to survive, and no money for modernization of the agricultural output devices.
German: confiscated, appeals to other works: road construction, tenant for the Romanians, "we were the serfs of the Romanians" (accept the labor-intensive, non-typical of the area crops: tobacco, get it from the farmers fourth ha for own use )
- after miners in Hunedoara and by the way the tenant (more out of habit)
- 1958 first form of cooperative: întovărăşire (geminsames edit the fields that are still privately owned)
- a year later Cooperativa Agricola de Productie: Agricultural cooperative (not the private property : theory: common)
- all Binţinţiener be for membership, as well as elsewhere forced with or without violence to membership
- farmers become workers in the industry
The Romanian economy during socialism
Continued during the Between the wars begun industrialization
"sovroms: Romanian companies which were used to exploit raw materials.
side effect: improvement of processing methods
After Stalin's death:
resolution sovroms, heavy industry, steel processing
trend of politics, protectionism, autarky, forced industrialization for economic independence aimed, no specialization
- to 1957
machinery imports from Czechoslovakia and the DDR, in return food exports
- 1957
independence of Romania (own way), in contradiction with the other Eastern Bloc countries to specialize according to economic sector aimed and not a uniform development
- high growth rate (late 60's and early 70's second highest after Japan)
- 1970 70% of GDP from industry, before the war, only 40%
- 2 thirds of the machines needs to be of covered women.
- 1975 49% of employment in industry, in 1950 only 19%
- 70's machinery exports and chemicals agricultural products
surpass - mainly to third world countries
- "multilateral development" (no specialization, with the needs "of its own resources")
Side effects: - Marxist-Leninist ideology and population as a Community Resource (no abortions, contraception, emigration)
- industrial development at the expense of agriculture
- low pay in agriculture
- poor productivity, too little investment in the L.
rate introduction as a first step towards the cooperatives
- a condition ensuring the supply of an urban population
Side effects: - no growth in agriculture, so any growth in the industry
experts saw collectivization as a single step towards the "rational" and to increase agricultural productivity to.
collectivization: first, adopting the Soviet model to clean up the peasantry, on the other hand, raising resources for the promotion of industrial development.
- Episode - mechanization - more manpower for the industry
- proletarianization of the peasants, change their mentality
Policy Implications: farmers are confronted with the bureaucracy, loss of independence, control by state organs.
- new relationship between farmers - means of production - community
In general: modernization of the equipment, increased productivity (though disproportionately on industrial development)
- massive government projects targeted to increase the agricultural productivity: Irrigation; extraction of soil by drainage; tractor factory, training centers for agronomists
- general improvement
new pay system in the early '70s: instead of daily wages (o zi muncă) - acord global (unit of work is no longer the work brigade but the individual household, where the work can be divided freely to family members)
- households undertake to produce on of CAP tilled soils a fixed income and are rewarded with a portion of the harvest (in excess of the work unit receives more from the excess income).
consequences: increased productivity, in so far that the state pay had to reduce to lower the earnings of the farmers as the industry employees to keep.
efforts to increase agricultural efficiency by reorganizing the production system:
- creation of state-owned farms IASs; wage workers
- SMAs mechanized units of work which the CAPs were available and were paid by them for the services rendered.
- Central Cooperative Associations 4-5 CAPs
1979 merger of the three forms under "Agricultural - Industrial Councils
- desire standard of living of people employed in agriculture, through payment in cash or in kind, to the aligning of the employees in the industry.
From 1972 Nutznießungsparzellen (0.15 ha for each CAP member)
episodes: approximation of urban and rural food consumption
- parcels of food supply to the farmers and the occasional trade in the city.
8% of the arable land: Nutznießungsparzellen, 19% state-owned land, 68% CAP
- to 8%:
- 10% of grain production
- a third of the meat production
- 36% Vegetable and Potato
- 38% milk
- 40
% fruit - about 50% of eggs
episode: intensive economy.
Posted by:
University of Leipzig Faculty of Philology
Institute of Applied Linguistics and Translational
Alexander Dragoman
The economic situation of Romania in the 70 years
(the example of the village Bintinti)
In the 70 years was employed in Romania or the majority of people in agriculture.
There were two ways to earn money for a nationalized and a somewhat more private. The first was to work in a CAP-operation (corresponding to the LPG in the former GDR), the second was the private management of so-called Nutzniesungszellen.
Here I would like to face both ways.
The situation in the CAP
The work situation in the CAP was very influenced by the centralization.
Structurally, all the agricultural land, animals, equipment and products owned collectively. The workers were a president, the party secretary, a treasurer and other officers and supervisors before each item. They monitored the by the state prescribed, planned economy and were also responsible for the taxes to the state budget.
The cultivation was mainly limited to vegetables. This could be transported more cost effective. In addition, there was little grain Bintinti capable ground. This was then still often vegetables grown. According to the farmers that was a rather unfavorable land use.
Part of the harvest had to actually be sold to the state at low prices. The rest was for his own use.
were problematic the high demands of the state in the productivity of farms and the high taxes which had to do this. A low harvest was first paid by the state (it also had the chance to remain the chairman in office). In addition, in the CAP only paid low wages.
The private management of Nutzniesungsparzellen
In this case, the farmers allocated a piece of land and controlled the management and contractual duties.
The state was also submitted its requirements, the advantage was that the peasants had more participation freedom of prices, wages and working hours. Hence this option was preferred.
were a problem in making this purchase to supply the fodder of cattle dar. In summer, the animals remain in the CAP-pastures. In winter, the farmers had to concern themselves with the food. Often it was because of theft in CAP facility. Some people therefore also a kind of "cow-sharing", that they kept animals together.
Another problem was the low pay of the state for the required duties. Since the peasants had to make their products cheap to the state, they drove it the market prices, which they could even determine, in the air. That made it again the non-farmers to acquire the particular village elders, heavy agricultural products. This concerned above all the milk products. It is interesting still, that some farmers (as opposed to common animal breeding) and two animals talked. One was destined for sale to the state, the other was sold at high prices on the market.
The reasons for these difficulties in two areas of work resulted largely from the studies of the state to distance themselves from foreign domination in the economy. It was the development of its own industry sought to supply it the duty of the Agriculture were necessary. The industry was built on so the expense of farmers.
demanded to change the situation, the more competence affected the CAP-head (if it was for the working in state enterprises), a higher payment for the products by government and the decentralization of the economy. The last two things were particularly important for private management.
These problems also resulted in a gradual change in labor structure.
The trend was to the effect that, especially the men work in industry and thus sought outside the village. This was due to the excellent transport connections possible and profitable because of higher wages. Women were often still work in agriculture and / or at home. This
shifts, however, the importance of agriculture, main livelihood 'to' only sources of food '.
It now holds a collection of relative prosperity. It puts more emphasis on festivals, home furnishings and education. For example, some women go to the factory for the money for a good education for their children to achieve.
An opinion of the elderly to these changes is: "Today everyone has money. In the old days you never saw a lot of money because prices were so bad. Now you can buy everything. But the problem is, now wants to work any more "(from: Sugar by the kilogram and the Cow's Tail by the Piece: The People of Bintinti under Socialism "
post Katrina
Summary p. 64-75
The text revolves around the German-Romanian relations in Binţinţi a village with about 600 -900 inhabitants of Transylvania. This once had a 20% share of German who declined to 10% in the 70's. In the past, the relations between the ethnic groups were difficult but were improving. This was achieved by including mixed marriages. In the first post-war wedding (1945) was able to escape the German women by the adoption of Romanian surname from deportation to the Soviet Union. Many were German Romanian identity, and only spoke Romanian.
Despite the proximity and good relations were significant ethnic differences, which often came through stereotypes to light. For example, when a Romanian with a German family was visiting, he could not get to hear the comment: "They have nothing to eat or drink you determined and given." Romanians would steal and be duplicitous.
Other fighting these images. From 1979, there were two German Funeral sermons in German and Romanian. Others said that they would be without the Germans or hillbilly. German
Some were against the mixed marriage of their children and joined them from the family. In order not to make a mockery of the people, they were reinstated in the family. The number of marriages increased from 3% in 1893 (the arrival of the Germans) to 2 World War, over 32% and then after 1970 to more than 75%. A child from a mixed marriage was baptized Lutheran and Orthodox church and then had sponsors on both sides.
differences saw the Romanians in the past in prosperity and in the present rather the language, religion and various aspects of national character (eg, neatness). Examples of this may be that the Romanians then had nicer houses and furniture, as this was very important for negotiations. And German children were professors and engineers, whereas previously they had no ambitions for higher education.
How do you know German? Language: All Binţinţi said in a variant of German, while German was little mention in mixed company. Religion: They were mostly Lutheran, Roman Catholic and 50 years went to church less often. Traditional songs and dances were familiar with the older Germans, the boys less. Older were more likely to be, sort of the middle generation, but the young people had German and Romanian friends. Spelling of the name: Most used the German spelling. The older the Germans were, the more they were opposed to intermarriage. However, it played no role in young people.
Efforts to preserve the identity was even younger German. The children and some spouses learned the German language.
Upward then go on largely uniform educational institutions, to which all groups had free access. Many citizens of Romania, the profession was more important than ethnic identity, when it came to work or marriage plans. However, this was again important in the choice of school or friends. In the previous social system, the Germans were the preferred class or were related to status characteristics. German and Romanians in the employment hierarchy uniformly distributed. However, many German villagers saw the greater social importance of the profession as a source of the decline of ethnicity.
The Romanian government countered with the official ideology, that Romania would be a multinational state in which all nations shared the same political (socialist) values, but the right to free expression would have the cultural differences. The linguistic loyalty was one of the rights. A certain pressure to adapt were more the 8% of the Romanian Hungarians than the 2% of Germans exposed in the country. But the state-supported to a certain degree of education in minority languages, the proportional Representation in political bodies, in the Communist Party, published in minority languages, and various artistic and recreational activities. Some were guaranteed by government-appointed directors for the working population of the German and Hungarian nationality.
The cultural landscape was created in part because many German families made emigration applications for West Germany. They should be encouraged to stay there, even by West German side. Nevertheless, the thread broke on not wanting to leave or fled from them.
discomfort under non-Romanian minorities was triggered by the rapidly rising nationalism. This was somewhat alleviated by emphasizing that the speech would be a Romanian Romanian State and not of a people. However, the Romanian population through by jingoistic rhetoric, and there was much talk of Dacian origin. Nationalism resulted from the fact that the Romanian government felt threatened by Hungary, Transylvania and wanted to have the border to the ever watchful Soviets. The independence of Romania was more important. The price for this was that it alienated some of the citizens and the internal legitimacy was to be found on shaky ground.
Great progress has been made in standards of living under socialism, but prices rose in the air. The development strategy was: to reduce the active population in agriculture, building industry, increase the income sufficient. A single market for consumer and industrial goods should be developed and thus a better life are possible. It was a costly endeavor. Also paid tribute to the people, and many did not understand the high prices.
In the village, relations between Germans and Romanians confusing, because a mix of admiration and hostility prevailed. Also in Binţinţi there were more or less nationalism.
The relationship between villagers and political environment and state was characterized by the reluctance Participation on the collective farm. This revealed their opposition to the role envisaged by the state. Among other things, it achieved a poor performance. Despite the resistance to the CAP (= Cooperativa Agricultura Productiva) said many of those government that it would be better than most previous ones. Even earlier times, such as the Hapsburg era, they held the government or leader.
1970 - Binţinţi, a village of serfs. The CAP was compared with the feudal system. It was similar, the small farmers have no interest in improving their own country or to higher production. The headquarters of both the time by themselves and later. In 1980, as well as 1820 has the small farmers some cattle, but no country. On the large fields, they work as little as productive as possible. But on their own little plot as productive as possible. They come home full of stolen goods. You must make products such as eggs, chicken, milk or a pig with two or three other households. Similar were the parades and, purchase of consumer goods. One difference was that the feudal nobility, except for food, foreign goods and preferred, desired state, the socialist villagers bought local products.
A 10-year girl needed a Christmas song for the school, which should also be no religious content.
has been from: "We three shepherds are on our way, To Bethlehem this holy day, With gifts for Jesus Christ our King. O joy! . Our Lady, joy we sing, "
simple:" We three shepherds are on our way, To Bucharest this holiday, we bring Gifts to Comrade Ceauşecsu. O joy! Our happy joy we sing. "
review con Claudia
ethnic and national consciousness
changes the significance of ethnicity in the course of the centuries in Transylvania. In the 15th Century was the ethnicity with the social status associated with belonging to the privileged stand (After the suppression of a peasant uprising 1437 - Bobâlna the revolt - was founded in the political system in the form of the Unio Trium Natiorum, the Union of Magyars three nations, Székely and Saxon. This implied that the ethnic Romanians and serfs remained largely powerless and were not represented in the national assembly). Romanians, who wanted to be freed and taken to the nobility known, automatically as Hungarians learned the Hungarian language and converted to Catholicism.
The idea of the privileged classes and the connection between ethnicity and social status has been the growing national consciousness and the increasing efforts for the establishment of national states in the Habsburg Empire in the 17th Century called into question. The dissolution of the feudal classes and the centralization of the community led to the individualization of ethnicity: not all social groups, but individuals were especially after 1848 to a nation. It was followed by important changes at the level of social structures: many non-German, were added to the middle class, 1918, the Hungarians in the political leadership away.
In Socialism: the elimination of class distinctions historically associated with positive effects for Romanian farmers: they were Germans, according to some "civilized than ever." Mixed marriages were common. The view "from above" is still found in a partially based on the "historical tradition" that is passed on in families.
The author compares the evolution of ethnic consciousness among the Germans, the Romanians and the Hungarians. In the course of the 12th
and 13 Century were settled in the regions in the south and north-east German colonists, for which the term naturalized Saxony, although it bears no relation to their origin. The resident German farmers and craftsmen enjoyed by a charter of King special rights and should probably, like the Szekler take over border security to the Carpathians. The foundations of ethnicity economic activity was based on manufactures and trade, and since the mid-16th Century, the Protestant religion. An important point of the ethnic consciousness of the Saxons was, according to Verdery, of the social and economic distinction between the Romanians. This distinction was particularly strong in the beginning - they received in their settlement of a privileged status (later part of the Unio Trium Natiorum).
With the decline of feudalism, they lost those privileges, in the 18th and 19 Century, they were excluded from the leadership of the country piece by piece. 1945 for their support of Hitler expropriated their land ownership and nationalized their industries, what the final End of their higher social status meant. The aspects of their identity, based on the social status began to fluctuate. Under socialism it was against only the identification with West Germany and the transatlantic economic superiority Romania. If Romania, Verdery, caused by the international development seek, West Germany economically, would disappear based on their ethnic consciousness.
The development of the consideration of the Germans as an ethnic group, as a privileged class within the feudal system for consideration as an individual of a particular nationality in the modern nation-state is well understood.
In contrast to the Germans, who have combined their strong identity with the protection of economic advantages (Verdery said after the mass emigration to Germany), the Hungarian identity was associated with a political claim to power. The author notes the persistence of a relatively high level of ethnic consciousness of the Hungarians who lost by the former political and administrative power is explained.
The Romanians, the author observed exactly the opposite development of ethnic consciousness as with the Germans: It was defined not by feudal privileges, but in general by the exclusion of the privilege. The Romanians were not "National" and its Orthodox Religion was not officially recognized, before the collapse of the feudal structures, they could only gain a higher social status by changing their identity and Hungary: the Hungarian language used in official circles, the Roman Catholic religion and converted Magyarized her name. They were serfs and were bound to their masters.
1690 established the Hapsburgs in the form of the Greek Catholic Church a Instituion that the development of the Romanian ethnic consciousness until the final overall enforcement with the transition of Transylvania to Romania in 1918 strongly supported.
Among the features of the Romanian ethnic consciousness among the author, the absence of an institutional base at the beginning, the constant association of the Romanian national consciousness with a low social status and the fact that ethnic identity is not based on the exclusion of the other, but on the struggle for recognition and equality.
post by Erzsébet shock
Katherine Verdery: Transylvanian villagers, University of California Press, Berkeley, Las Angeles, London, 1983, p. 345-351
Literature:
Verdery, Katherine: Transylvanian villagers .- Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1983, copies of: 29-75, 338-371
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